Hi Joe et al,
I think the most direct answer to your question may be found in Peter Nicholson's _Practical Carpentry, Joinery, and Cabinet-Making_, published in 1826. On page 25 of the section entitled "Practical Cabinet-Making," he has several paragraphs under the heading of "Cleaning off Wood-Work, &c." In part, he writes:
"The finishing the surface of wood-work is sometimes called polishing; but, to avoid using the same word in two senses, we shall apply the ordinary term of cleaning off. The mode of commencing this operation depends on whether it be a veneered or a solid surface that is to be cleaned off. In solid wood the surface is rendered as even as possible; first, by a finely-set smoothing plane, and then by a steel scraper, to remove the marks of the plane. The surface is afterwards rubbed with glass-paper, finishing with the finest kind, so as to render the surface as smooth as possible."
For woods prone to raised grain during finishing, he describes dampening the surface and re-smoothing with the glass-paper or pumice stone. I learned this technique under the name of "flashing," and have also heard it called "whiskering." For veneered surfaces, Nicholson describes using coarser and finer toothing planes, followed up with a scraper and glass-paper. In either event, Nicholson treats this cleaning off process as a precursor to "common polishing" (oil polishing), wax polishing, french polishing and varnishing.
[As to filling the pores, Nicholson describes adding finely sieved brick dust, or, preferably, tripoli to the linseed oil for new work, if doing oil polishing.]
Nicholson trained/worked as a cabinet-maker during the 1770's, so it isn't too much of a stretch to think that he is passing on the practice of "cleaning off" as he experienced it during that time. Though, of course, when it comes to "polishing," french polishing became popular a little later. However, I'm not aware of any direct textual evidence from that period with which we can definitively confirm this. Which leaves us with indirect and fragmentary evidence from which we can assess whether it is possible and/or likely.
As to the use of a steel scraper (cabinet scraper), I have yet to find any mention from the 18th century. Though, personally, I strongly suspect it was commonly in use to the point that it was taken for granted. Possibly cabinet scrapers were not commercially available, though there are plenty of mentions of scrapers for use on the hulls of wooden ships. Tangentially, I've run across a passing mention, dated 1758, in the context of smoothing the ground for japanning, of the use of fish-skin ... or a "glass shave."
As to the use and availability of abrasives, the other early mentions also have to do with fish-skin. In a 1745 book on farriery, we find this brief excerpt: “... may well be compared to the Fish-Skin used by Joiners in smoothing up their Work ... .” Then, in a 1766 book on angling, appears this text: “ ... The Skin of [Monk] Fish is very rough, and covered all over with filthy Slime. It is very much used to polish Wood and Ivory, and goes by the general Name of Fish Skin.” Finally, as a change of pace, by 1774, in a work on amateur scientific experiments, there is mention of using emery paper to smooth a piece of box[wood] being used in a scientific instrument.
As to commercially available abrasives, I am interested in John’s mention of a possible 1760’s Philadelphia listing of sand or glass paper. Tom Clark, the man I apprenticed with, thought he remembered a similar citation, but we’ve never been able to track it down. I’d be very interested if anyone has specific information on this.
I suspect several people are already aware of the listings from Christopher Gabriel’s inventories toward the end of the 18th century:
1791
13 quire glass paper
2 Bundles Dutch Rush
1 [lot?] Fish Skin
1800
11 Ream & 6 Quire Paper Emery
1 Ream Sand Do.
A slightly earlier mention is a newspaper advertisement dated February 17, 1786. The listings are for “Ironmongery and Hardware Goods,” from Forrest and Brown, High Street, Edinburgh, “At the Gilded Cock.” Along with listings for Joiners and Carpenters Tools, these abrasives are found:
“Fish skin, Fin Tails & Rushes
Emery Paper, & Sand Ditto.
Coarse and fine Glass Paper.”
Though Joe didn’t ask about finishes, it seems this thread has veered off this issue to some extent. This strikes me as an important question due to the fact that it seems there is a widespread assumption that cabinet/furniture finishes, prior to the introduction of french polishing, were typically indifferent and lackluster. Based on microscopic studies of small samples, the conservators and curators at Winterthur are finding that the third quarter 18th century pieces they’ve studied largely refute this assumption. Specifically, they have been finding that the residue of resins still extant in the surfaces of these pieces are consistent with the varnish finishes known to be in use at the time.
When these varnishes are discussed to any extent in the older literature, the quality of shine or gloss almost invariably comes up. For example, Richard Neve, in 1736, says: “Varnish, or Vernish, of Vernix, Lat. a viscid Compound of Gums and other Ingredients for setting a Gloss upon Cabinets, Pictures, and other Works. ...” A second example comes from a widely advertised prize, or premium, being offered by the [London] Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, in a period from about 1758 to 1762. This calls for the production of a varnish, better than Martin’s (copal) varnish from Paris, on the basis of hardness, transparency, “being capable of the finest polish,” and resistance to cracking.
This emphasis is borne out by paintings from the period, as has already been mentioned. Here are links to four period paintings which show reflections indicating glossy surfaces to one degree or another (Larry posted a link to one of these on another forum some time back). The first of these is pretty subtle, but useful to look at. Some of them can be enlarged by clicking on them:
http://tinyurl.com/ykv662j
http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/ObjectDetails.aspx?oid=41241
http://tinyurl.com/y99orgv
http://resources.metapress.com/pdf-preview.axd?code=yl07522443wk2u60&size=largest
Of course, these are high-style pieces, as David already mentioned. This is to be expected because of the social status of likely subjects for portraits from that period. But I think these images, and the information about the varnish finishes, are important in refuting the seemingly common assumption that cabinet-makers and their clients were indifferent in their approach to surface preparation and finish quality before the introduction of french polish.
Don McConnell
Eureka Springs, AR
